Ascariasis and Trichuriasis

————————————————- OBJECTIVES I. Objectives Within our 3 weeks clinical exposure at San Pedro Hospital at St. Luke’s Ward, we, the proponents of San Pedro College, BSN 3E, group3, subgroup2, will be able to present a comprehensive nursing case analysis regarding the case of our patient who have a Bronchopneumonia in which we can gain more knowledge to understand further our clients condition. In order to achieve the general objective stipulated above, this case analysis aims to: a.Present a rationale discussing the rotation, patient’s medical status, statistics which include the international, national and local statistics about the case and its nursing implications; b. assess patient in a cephalocaudal manner; c. obtain factual information regarding patient’s data base including the biographical data, clinical data, family health history, past health hi story, and history of present illness; d. construct a family genogram to trace the family history that will show us the health status, hereditary diseases, and the present condition of the client and his family ; e. ite at least 2 definitions of the diagnosis from the book and 1 from the internet source f. discuss the specific medical management including drug studies and diagnostics according to the condition of the patient; g. explain the related nursing theory that can apply to the situation of the patient; h. formulate one (1) nursing care plan applicable to the patient; i. compose a comprehensive discharged plan following METHOD. j. list all sources and references used in the making of this case study. ————————————————- ————————————————- INTRODUCTIONII. Intr oduction Oxygenation concept covers the study of different concepts on oxygenation and the nursing care for clients having problems and alterations from the normal process of oxygenation. Oxygenation is the dynamic interaction of gases in the body for the purpose of delivering adequate oxygen essential for cellular. The systems involved in this concept are the respiratory, cardiovascular and hematologic systems. This concept functions to support the different clients in the clinical setting by providing nursing care, providing health teachings, and helping them restore their body’s normal functioning.The group has been clinically exposed in St. Luke’s Ward were we encountered our client N. A , a 6 year old female who was admitted due to fever under the service of Dr. R. Mata on Room 443-2 who has Bronchopneumonia. The group then decided to make him our main subject in our case analysis for the reason that his condition was perfectly related to our oxygenation rotation and also its affected organ is the respiratory system while its affected organ is the lungs.We have chosen her as our patient for our case analysis because of our desire to gain more knowledge and understanding of the disease and the condition in which our patient is experiencing. Bronchopneumonia is an acute inflammation of the lungs and bronchioles, characterized by chills, fever, high pulse and respiratory rates, bronchial breathing, cough with purulent bloody sputum, sever chest pain, and abdominal distension.The disease is usually a result of the spread of infection from the upper to the lower respiratory tract, most common caused by the bacterium Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Staphylococcus pyogenes, or Streptococcus pneumoniae( Mosby,2010) For international statistics according to world health organization children under 5 years of age they have 613,600 cases with 2,044 number of childhood deaths in the year 2004 ( Retrieved from http://whqlibdoc. who. int/publications/2006/92806404 89_eng. df ) While for its national statistics according to Department of health for the age 5-9 years old they got 244 cases of pneumonia for girls and 287 cases for boys with a total of 531 cases for both sexes While for the local statistics according to Department of Health they have 174 cases for every 100000 children with the incidence rate of 253. 16 for the year 2007 only in Davao city. This case study would contribute a lot on the quality of nursing education, practice, and research. First, to nursing education, this case study would keep the group equipped with knowledge, skills, and attitudes on ow to manage future patients with Bronchopneumonia it then nourishes those lessons learned in the scope of our concepts. To the nursing practice, this case study would help those who are practicing their professions as nurses, student nurses and other people who are medically inclined by being able to improve their nursing management and intervention to patients who had Bronchopneu monia. In application, those learned from our lectures can be related more to an actual state thus having a higher understanding, as to improve our skills and thinking.This case is facilitative to nursing research, because all data that we have gathered will help us in understanding the disease process of the patient. This would also help the group identifying the primary needs and health problems that would arise; thus it will help researchers that will encounter the same problem in the future. The group hopes that in the future technology can give the patients a more reliable treatment in an affordable and easy way for the patient. ————————————————- DEFINITION OF DIAGNOSIS BRONCHOPNEUMONIA/ CAP MR Bronchoneumonia can be a primary illness (often called community acquired pneumonia or CAP) or can develop as a complication of another respiratory infection or underlying illn ess. The causes of pneumonia in children vary depending on the season and the child’s age and health status. Pneumonia most likely develops when the body is unable to defend against infectious agents, which could be viruses, bacteria, mycoplasma, fungi, chemicals, foreign substances, or various other organisms or materials. It is also that not all inflammation of the lung is infection in origin. It could be caused by aspiration of foreign substances.Source: Bowden, V. , Greenberg, C. (2008). Pediatric Nursing Procedures Second Edition. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. * Community acquired pneumonia (CAP) – Occurs either in the community setting or within 48 hours of hospitalization. The agents that most frequently cause CAP requiring hospitalization are Streptococcus pneumoniae, H. influenza, Legionella, Pseudomonas aeroginosa and other gram negative rods Source: Bare, B. , Cheever, K. , Hinkle, J. , Smeltzer, S. (2009). Brunner and Suddarth's Textbook of Medical Surgica l Nursing 12th edition. Lippincott Williams ; Wilkins Moderate risk community acquired pneumonia manifests vital signs that are not within normal range, having symptoms of tachypnea, tachycardia and fever. It can have x-ray findings of multi-lobar involvement, progression of lesion to 50% within 24 hours, abscess and pleural effusion. It is suspected to be prone for aspiration. It can be associated with extrapulmonary findings of sepsis and unstable comorbid condition. Source: http://www. slideshare. net/crisbertc/pneumonia-4775641 ASCARIS LUMBRICOIDES * Ascaris Lumbricoides is also known as the giant intestinal roundworm. Adult roundworms live in the small intestines.Fertilized and unfertilized eggs develop in the soil into embryonated stage which is the infective stage. Soil is commonly contaminated in areas where there are no sanitary toilet facilities or where human feces is used as fertilizer in vegetable garderns. Source: Maglaya,A .. [et. al]. (2009). Argonauta Corporation. M arikina City, Philippines * Ascaris Lumbricoides is a genus of nematode worms; large parasitic intestinal roundworms found throughout temperate and tropic regions. Source: Mosby’s Pocket Dictionary. (2010). Elsevier. Singapore. * Ascaris lumbricoides, giant roundworm, is the most common parasitic worm in humans.According to some estimates 25 % of humans are infected with the disease, ascariasis. Ascariasis occurs worldwide, mostly in tropical and subtropical countries. It has highest prevalence in areas of poor sanitation and where human feces are used as fertilizer. Source:http://www. parasitesinhumans. org/ascaris-lumbricoides-giant-roundworm. html TRICHURIS TRICHIURA * Trichuris Trichiura is also known as the whipworm because the anterior end is highly attenuated and the posterior end is thicker and more fleshy. It is another common intestinal worm and is usually found together with ascaris. Source: Maglaya,A .. et. al]. (2009). Argonauta Corporation. Marikina City, Philip pines * Trichuris Trichiura is a species of whipworms, commonly found in warm,moist regions of the world. Ingestion of whipworm eggs results in infection in humans; the parasits live mainly in cecum or large intestine. Source: Mosby’s Pocket Dictionary. (2010). Elsevier. Singapore. * Trichuris trichiura is a nematode (roundworm) also called the human whipworm. The third most common round worm of humans. Occurs worldwide, with infections more frequent in areas with tropical weather and poor sanitation practices, and among children.It is estimated that 800 million people are infected worldwide. Trichuriasis  (infection with Trichuris trichiura) occurs in the southern United States. Source: http://www. medterms. com/script/main/art. asp? articlekey=12961 ————————————————- PHYSICAL ASSESSMENT A. Physical Assessment Date and time of assessment: September 21,2012, 9 a. m. * GENERAL SURVEY N. A. , six years old, female has a mesomorphic body structure and she weighs 15 kilograms. She is wearing a clean hospital gown. Her hair was black in color and is unkempt. She has a brown-complexion.Upon interview with the watcher, the patient is alert and oriented and in an appropriate mood. * VITAL SIGNS VITAL SIGNS| RESULT| NORMAL VALUES| Blood Pressure| 90/60mmHg| 87/48 – 117/64 mmHg| Temperature| 35. 8  °C| 35. 6 – 37. 5 C| Cardiac Rate| 110 bpm| 60 – 100 bpm| Pulse Rate| 102 bpm| 60 – 100 bpm| Respiratory Rate| 30 cpm| 20 – 25 cpm| I. SKIN, HAIR, NAILS The patient has a brown complexion and is generally uniform in color. The skin is dry, rough to touch and with fair skin turgor. The body’s temperature is uniform all throughout the body and is within the normal range (36-37  °C). no lesions, edema or ulcerations noted.Hair is black in color and in normal distribution. Texture is brittle. Infestations noted such as dandruff and lice. Body hair is variable in amount. The fingerplate has a convex curvature with an angle of 160 °. Nail beds are pinkish reflecting a good circulation. Epidermis surrounding the nail is intact. After performing the blanch test of capillary refill, there is a prompt return of usual color in 3 seconds. II. HEENT * HEAD The patient’s head is normocephalic. Facial features are symmetrical, palpebral fissures equal in size and symmetrical nasolabial folds. Muscle strength of jaw is normal. * EYESEyebrows are evenly distributed and symmetrically aligned. The skin is intact and movements are equal. Eyelashes are equally distributed and slightly curled outward. No lesions or discoloration noted on both eyes. Sclera is clear. The palpebral conjunctiva is smooth and pale. The pupils are black in color, equal in size of about 2mm in diameter, round and have a smooth border. The iris appears brown in color. * EARS The ears have the same color as that of facial skin, symmetrical and aligned with the outer canthus of the eye. It is mobile and not tender. However, the texture is dry. Normal voice tones are audible.No discharges noted. * NOSE External nose is uniform in color and no discharge noted. The nasal mucosa is pink in color. The nasal septum is intact and in midline. * MOUTH AND OROPHARYNX The lips are pinkish and moist and has symmetrical contour. The tongue is in midline without any lesions present. There were twelve upper teeth and ten lower teeth present. Two upper molars have been extracted and one lower molar has cavity. The gums are pink. The oral mucosa has a uniform pink color and moist. Hard and soft palate are pinkish in color. Gag reflex is present. III. NECK Neck muscles are equal in size.Head movements are coordinated and smooth with no discomforts. Trachea is centrally placed in midline of neck and spaces are equal on both sides. The thyroid gland is not visible upon inspection. IV. BACK The skin is uniform in color. No les ions, areas of tenderness, redness or abrasions noted. V. ANTERIOR THORAX AND LUNGS Upon inspection, difficulty of breathing/ tachypnea was observed. The patient used accessory muscles such as shoulders and the abdominal muscles to assist in breathing. Crackles where heard on both lung fields upon auscultation. Pleural friction rub is also present. Chest skin turgor is good. VI. POSTERIOR THORAX AND LUNGSThe anteroposterior diameter of the chest has a ratio of 1:2. The skin is intact, temperature is uniform, chest wall is intact and no masses or tenderness noted. Upon palpation,tactile fremitus is increased when patient is asked to say, â€Å"1,2,3†. VII. CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM No pulsations, lifts, or heaves noted on aortic, pulmonic, triscupid and apical areas noted upon inspection. Normal cardiac sounds heard upon auscultation (S1 and S2). Peripheral pulses have full pulsations with symmetrical pulse volumes. Peripheral leg veins are symmetric in size. Limbs are not tender. Capillary refill time of 3 seconds was recorded.VIII. ABDOMEN The skin color is uniform. No lesions, masses or tenderness noted. Audible bowel sounds of 5-10 sounds per minute. IX. EXTREMITIES No nodules or deformities observed on shoulders, arms and elbows. Forearms can be flexed, extended, or put to supine and prone position. Contractures, redness, bone enlargements, nodules, atrophy and tremors were not observed. Fingerplates are of convex curvature and nail beds are pinkish. No pain or tenderness, deformities on hip joints and thigh. A visible scar on right calf is present and measures 2. 5 inches. Lesions, edema, inflammation and deformities are absent.NEUROLOGIC ASSESSMENT * Mental Status * Language Client can talk and is able to express himself by speech and gestures. She can articulate clearly. * Orientation The client was able to recognize other persons such as her relatives, nurses on duty and his physician. She is oriented of the time of the day and was aware of where sh e is at the present moment. * Memory The client was able to recall the meal she had for breakfast. She also remembered some of the hospital personnel that were assigned to her. * Attention span and calculation The patient has a short attention span as she is easily distracted by her surroundings.Her ability to calculate was done through giving simple arithmetic questions (addition and multiplication). Her answers are correct. CRANIAL NERVES Cranial Nerve| Type| Function| Assessment| Olfactory| Sensory| smell| We covered the client’s eyes and she was able to identify the smell of milk and peanuts. | Optic| Sensory| Vision and Visual Fields| The patient does not know how to read but sees clearly the prints on the paper given to her. | Oculomotor| Motor| EOM, movement of sphincter of pupil, movement of ciliary muscle of the lens| The patient was able to see through the 6 extraocular movements.The pupil size was 2mm at both left and right eye, was briskly reactive to light and ac commodation. It constricts and dilate in response to light. | Trochlear| Motor| EOM, specifically moves eyeball downward ; laterally | The patient was able to move her eyes from left to right and right to left without moving her neck. | Trigeminal| Sensory ; Motor| Sensation of cornea, skin of face and nasal mucosa| When the patient clenched her jaw, her temporal and masseter muscles felt equally strong. Jaw movement was normal. The patient blinked as the wisp of cotton touched the lateral sclera of the eye.She also felt the cotton as it touched her left and right cheeks. | Abducens| Motor| EOM, specifically, moves eyeballs laterally| The patient as able to rotate her eyes in a circular manner from top to left to bottom and to right and back to top as instructed. | Facial| Sensory ; Motor| Facial expression, taste (anterior two-thirds of the tongue)| The patient has symmetrical facial features when instructed to smile, frown, close eyes and puff cheeks. | Vestibulocochlear| Sensory| Hearing ; balance| The patient was able to hear the student nurses properly during normal voice conversation. Glossopharyngeal| Sensory ; Motor| Swallowing ability, tongue movement| Gag reflex was present by touching the posterior part of the using using a tongue depressor. | Vagus| Sensory ; Motor| Swallowing, vocal sord movement| The student nurses asked the patient to open her mouth widely and observed during inspection that the palate and uvula rises in the midline as patient says â€Å"ahh†. | Accessory| Motor| Head movement, shrugging of shoulders| The patient was able to move his head to her left and right against the hand as a resistance and has equal strength.She was able to move her head up and down freely. Her sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles were equal in size upon inspection and palpation. | Hypoglossal| Motor| Protrusion of tongue from side to side, up ; down| The patient was able to move her tongue to his left and right, up and down and was able to pr otrude her tongue. | ————————————————- ————————————————- ————————————————- HISTORY ————————————————- TAKING PERSONAL DATA Name: N. A Age: 6 years old Gender: femaleHome Address: Davao City Birth date: January 16, 2006 Nationality: Filipino Religion: Christian Civil Status: Child CLINICAL DATA Hospital Institution: San Pedro Hospital Ward: St. Luke’s Ward Room and Bed no: 443-2 Date Admitted: August 19, 2012 Time Admitted: 1:00am How admitted: Per ambulatory Chief Complaint: Fever Attending Physician: Dr. Richard Mata Family Health Histo ry In the maternal side of our client, both of the grandparents of N. A died, her grandmother M. B. died at the age of 62 because of myoma, she had a history of asthma, while its grandfather died for unknown reason also had asthma.The couple was blessed with 7 children including the mother of our client Amy and Aladin who also has a history of asthma, their siblings Archie and Arnold both have asthma and fond of smoking and drinking alcoholic beverages. While Ariel died at the age of 35 and also had asthma. For the paternal side, the grandmother of our client had a history of asthma while its grandfather has TB and fond of smoking. They were blessed with 5 children including the father of our client R. A who also likes to drink and smoke, his sister M.A died at the age of 7 because it drowned on the beach, while its brother aldrin had a history of asthma and was also a smoker and drinker, their brother Renante died at the age of 26 due to stab wound and was a smoker and drinker befo re. Our client N. A was used to be asthmatic as well as its brother J. A ————————————————- ————————————————- GENOGRAM Past Health History According to the mother of our client when she was pregnant for our client she always go to their barangay for prenatal check up, she said she gave birth of N.A at the age of 16 in full term at their house here in Davao City with the help of her trusted midwife in a normal spontaneous vaginal delivery, she said that she first noticed a blood in her underpants and started to feel pain following a ruptured bag of water after an hour, she said that she labored not less than 8 hours. The mother of our client also shared that during the childhood days of her daughter it had chicken pox, tonsillitis, sore eyes and asthma when she it was 2 years old, her mother also stated that her daughter N.A completed her immunizations such as BCG, DPT, OPV, Measles, HIV, and Hepa B. Per interview to the mother, she stresses that her daughter had her first hospitalization when she was just months and was admitted at Regional now called SPMC due to diarrhea and vomiting, but then after 5 days of admission, the Doctor had given the family a list of medications but forget their names , the mother shared that the moment they got home after 5 days the mother of our client noticed a stainless earrings in her daughter’s feces, When our client N.A was 3 or 4 years of age she was then again admitted at San Pedro Hospital under the service of Dr. Lubo in due to swelling of its right lower extremity , according to the parents their daughter underwent a minor surgery just enough to remove the bacteria or some kind of microorganism present. They describe the leg of their daughter with a redness surrounding its puss unfortunately th ey cannot remember what’s the case was but they shared that during that admission N.A was also diagnosed with Pneumonia with the used of chest X-ray, its third hospitalization was the present. Our client has no allergy to any kind of food nor medications, according to N. A’s mother her daughter stop breastfeeding when she was 2 while according to its father his daughter was a picky eater in terms of vegetables, he said she could only count the number of vegetables her daughter ate, according to our client she prefer pork, fish or fruits than vegetables.Per interview to our client she said she eliminates once a day, and urinates at least 2-3 times per day and sometimes urinates when asleep. N. A also shared to us that she usually sleeps after watching Lorenzo’s Time and wakes up at 6 am to prepare for school, she was a kinder student in one of the project hope here in Davao City, according to her she had lots of friends in school and they usually play, hide and s eek, Dampa, Chinese Garter and the like. Present Health History Our client N.A had an on and off fever for 4 days, her mother gives their trusted paracetamol neo-kiddielets yet they decided to admit their daughter last September 19, 2012 at 1:00 am under the service of Dr. Mata on room 443-2, he was then ordered to have CBC,Urinalysis , CXR and fecalysis. The result of CXR indicates that our client has bronchopneumonia and was also positive of ascaris and trichuris, he was given medications and one of them is antiox to get rid of the parasite inside our patient. ————————————————-MANAGEMENT Radiologic Findings Procedure| Rationale| Impression| Nursing Responsibilities| X-ray of the chest and abdomen| Test done to visualize the internal structures using the x-ray| Hazy infiltrates seen in the inner lung zones. Heart and great vessels are not unusual. Diaphragm and costophren ic sulci are intact. The rest of the included structures are unremarkable. Bronchopneumonia| * Let the patient wear the prescribed hospital gown * Remove other garments and other accessories * Transport patient to the X-ray room. Provide safety and privacy| Hematology: Complete Blood Count provides a fairly complete evaluation of all formed elements in blood. It can supply a great deal of the information necessary to diagnose a hematologic disorder, help to identify disease states not directly related to hematopoietic system, and help to evaluate the stages and prognosis of certain diseases. It helps to detect the abnormality of the component of the blood that shows underlying diseases in the patient condition before performing a surgery or operation.Date| Component| Rationale| Results| Clinical Significance| Interventions| SEPTEMBER19,2012| Hemoglobinmale 140-180g/dlfemale 120-160g/dl| Hemoglobin is a protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen. A blood test can tell how much he moglobin you have in your blood and determine the ectent of Anemia. | 110g/dl| Elevated Values:Polcythemia, DehydrationDecreased Values:Many cancers, Hodgkin’s disease, Lymphosarcoma, Anemia, and malutrition and as a side effect of chemotherapy| Pretest Patient Care for CBC, Hemogram: * -Explain to the patient or watcher the procedure, process and purpose of the test to be done. Inform them that the test requires a blood sample and slight discomfort may be felt when skin is punctured. * * – Avoid stress if possible because altered physiologic status influences and changes normal hemogram values. * – Select hemogram components ordered at regular intervals. These should be drawn consistently at the same time of day for reasons of accurate comparison; natural body rhythms cause fluctuations in laboratory values at certain times of the day-Dehydration or overhydration can dramatically alter.The presence of either of these states should be communicated to the laborat ory. -Fasting is not necessary. However, fat-laden meals may alter some tests results as a result of lipidemia. Intra:-Inform the patient that venous blood is to be collected-Venipuncture should be performed in an aseptic technique as well as the collection of sample. Posttest Patient Aftercare for Hemogram, CBC:-Apply manual pressure and dressings to the puncture site on removal of the needle. -Monitor the puncture site for inflammations or hematoma formation.Maintain pressure dressings on the site if necessary. Notify physician of unusual problems with bleeding. -Resume normal activities and diet. -Bruising at the puncture site is common. Signs of inflammation are unusual and should be reported if the inflamed area | | Erythrocytesmale 4. 5-5. 0female 4. 0-5. 0x10^12/L| The number of red blood cells per cubic millimeter of blood. erythrocyte indices,n. pr the standard values of red blood cell numbers, morphologic characteristics, and behavior in comprehensive hematologic laborator y testing. | 4. 3 x10^12/L| Decrease in value means hemorrhage, hemolysis anemias, cancer, over dehydrationIncrease in value meas polycythemia, dehydration, living at high altitude| | | MCHMean Corpuscular Hemoglobin27 – 33picograms/cell| is the average mass of hemoglobin per red blood cell in a sample of blood. It is reported as part of a standard complete blood count. | 26. 0picograms/cell| MCH less than lower limit of normal: hypochromic anemia MCH within normal range: normochromic anemia MCH greater than upper limit normal: hyperchromic anemia| | | MCVMean Corpuscular Volume80 – 96femtoliter| is a measure of the average red blood ell volume that is reported as part of a standard complete blood count. | 80Femtoliter| MCV less than lower limit of normal: microcytic anemia MCV within normal range: normocytic anemia MCV greater than upper limit of normal: macrocytic anemia| | | MCHCMean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration32 to 36 grams/deciliter| The MCHC is a measure of the concentration of hemoglobin within a red blood cell. This measurement is useful in evaluating the clinical response of an anemic patient to therapy. | 32. 6grams/deciliter| Decreased: microcytic anemiaIncreased: hereditary spherocytosis| | | Leukocytes(5. -10. 0x10^9/L)| A useful guide in determining the severity of disease process. It will identify certain persons with increase susceptibility to infection through measuring total amount of WBC in the body| 3. 7 x10^9/L| Elevated Values:. An increase in the number of circulating leukocytes is rarely due to an increase in all five types of leukocytes. When this occurs, it is most often due to dehydration and hemoconcentration. In some diseases, such as measles, pertussis and sepsis, the increase in white blood cells is so dramatic that the picture resembles leukemia.Decreased Values:Aplastic anemia, bone marrow depression, pernicious anemia, some infectious or parasitic disease| | | Neutrophils(0. 55-0. 65%)| Neutrophils are p roduced in huge numbers in response to infection, trauma, infarction (cell death due to lack of blood supply), emotional distress or other stimuli. They cruise around the blood stream waiting to be called to a site where damage is happening. Once there, they kill the invading bacteria and other noxious substances, usually dying in the process themselves. The method they use to kill invaders is called phagocytosis which involves engulfing and digesting the â€Å"enemy† cell. 0. 48 %| Elevated Values:Elevated in bacterial infection, Hodgkin’s disease, Decreased Values:Decreased in Leukemia and malnutrition and as a side effect of hemotherapy, Infection, drug reaction, autoimmune neutropenia, maternal antibody production, aplastic anemia. | | | Lymphocytes(0. 25-0. 40%)| Lymphocytes consist of the B cells and T cells. The B cells make antibodies and the T cells regulate the immune response. Lymphocytes secrete products (lymphokines) that modulate the functional activities of many other types of cells and are often present at sites of chronicinflammation. 0. 41 %| Elevated Values:Elevated in lymphocytic leukemia, Hodgkin’s disease, multiple myeloma, viral infections, and chronic infections, cytomegalovirus infection, petussis, brucellosis, tuberculosis, syphilis. Decreased Values:Decreased in malnutrition, cancer, and other leukemias and as asdie effect of chemotherapy. Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection, Miliary Tuberculosis, Renal failure, Terminal Cancer| | | Monocytes(0. 02-0. 06%)| Monocyte is a type of white blood cell, part of the human body's immune system.Monocytes have several roles in the immune system and this includes: (1) replenish resident macrophages and dendritic cells under normal states, and (2) in response to inflammation signals| 0. 09 %(High)| Elevated Values:Elevated in Acute infection, monocytic leukemia and cancer. , chronic myeloid leukemia, acute monocytic leukemia, myelomonocytic leukemia, lupus erythematosus, p olyarteritisnodosa, rheumatoid arthritis| | | Eosinophils(0. 01-0. 05%)| Eosinophils contain toxic substances that kill foreign cells in the blood. An absolute eosinophil count is a blood test that measures the number of white blood cells called eosinophils.Eosinophils become active when you have certain allergic diseases, infections, and other medical conditions. | 0. 01%| Elevated Values:Elevated in cancer of bone, ovary, testes and brain. Skin diseases, trichonosis, Scarlet fever, Chronicmyelogenous leukemia, Myeloproliferative diseases. Decreased Values:Allergies, Pyogenic infection, Shock, Postsurgical response| | | Basophils(0. 000-0. 005%)| A type of white blood cell in the circulation which is characterized by its ability to uptake certain dyes when stained for examination under the microscope (basophils appear blue).Basophils play a part in the allergic response as they have IgE on their surface, and release chemical mediators causing allergic symptoms when the IgE binds to its specific allergen. | 0. 01 %| Elevated Values: Elevated in leukemia and healing stage of infecion. Hypersensitivity reactions, ulcerative colitis, chronic hemolytic anemia, Hodgkin’s disease, myxedema, chronic myelogenous leukemia, polycythemia veraDecreased Values:Hyperthyroidism, Pregnancy, Stress, Cushing syndrome| | | Hematocrit(0. 40-0. 48%)| Hematocrit is a blood test that measures the percentage of the volume of whole blood that is made up of red blood cells.This measurement depends on the number of red blood cells and the size of red blood cells. | 0. 34%(Low)| a danger sign of an increased risk of dengue shock syndrome. Polycythemia vera (PV) is associated with elevated hematocrit. PV is a myeloproliferative disorder in which the bone marrow produces excessive numbers of red cells, and reflects excessive numbers of RBC precursors in the bone marrow, as well as some abnormal forms. This condition is called erythroid hyperplasia. Lowered hematocrit can imply signi ficant hemorrhage. | | | Thrombocyte(150-300 x10^9/L)| Thrombocytes are important for normal blood clotting.If there are not enough thrombocytes, the risk of uncontrolled or prolonged bleeding increases. When there are too many thrombocytes in the blood, abnormal blood clot formation, a serious and life-threatening condition, can occur. Looking at the numbers, size, and health of thrombocytes is a part of a Complete Blood Count (CBC) test. | 27610^9/L| Increased values:Increased in malignancy, myeloproliferative disease, rheumatoid arthritis, and post operatively; about 50% of pt. with unexpected increase of platelet count will be found to have a malignancy.Decreased values : thrombocytopenic purpura, acute leukemia, aplastic anemia, and during cancer chemotherapy. | | Urinalysis: The urinalysis is used as a screening and/or diagnostic tool because it can help detect substances or cellular material in the urine associated with different metabolic and urinary tract and kidney disorde rs. Date| Component| Definition &Normal range| Rationale| Result| Interpretation &Significance| Nursing Responsibilities| SEPTEMBER19,2012| Color| Mainly a result of the presence of the pigment urochrome, (produced through endogenous metabolic processes).N: Light yellow to amber| The urinalysis is a routine screening test which is usually done as a part of a physical examination, during preoperative testing, and upon hospital admission. The results of UA are used to diagnose, treat, and provide follow-up for a variety of conditions, such as infections of the kidneys and urinary tract and also in the diagnosis of diseases unrelated to the urinary system. | Light Yellow| A red or red-brown (abnormal) color could be from a food dye, eating fresh beets, a drug, or the presence of either hemoglobin or myoglobin.If the sample contained| PRE-PROCEDURE * Explain to the patient the purpose of the routine urinalysis and the need for a urine sample to be obtained. †¢ No fasting is require d prior to the test. | | Appearance/Turbidity| Generally refers to the clarity of the urine sample. N: Clear to slightly hazy| | Clear| Turbidity or cloudiness may be caused by excessive cellular material or protein in the urine or may develop from crystallization or precipitation of salts upon standing at room temperature or in the refrigerator.Clearing of the specimen after addition of a small amount of acid indicates that precipitation of salts is the probable cause of turbidity. | INTRA-PROCEDURE * Testing the first morning urine specimen, when the urine is concentrated, is preferred. * A minimum sample of 15 mL of urine is required. * A clean-catch midstream technique to obtain the urine sample is recommended to prevent contamination of the specimen. * Give instructions to the client on how to catch urine. * Instruct patients to avoid touching the inside of the specimen container and lid. For the portions of the urinalysis which involve use of dipstick testing, a reagent strip is dipped into the urine specimen. After a period of time specified by the manufacturer of the dipstick, the color of the reagent pad is compared with a color chart provided by the manufacturer. * Gloves are worn throughout the procedure. POST-PROCEDURE * Label the urine specimen and transport it to the laboratory immediately. The urine needs to be examined within 2 hours. * If urine is collected via an indwelling urinary catheter, a syringe and needle is used. Remove the needle prior to transferring the urine to the specimen cup to avoid damage to any microscopic sediment which may be present. Report abnormal findings to the primary care provider. | | Specific Gravity| Indication of the kidney’s ability to reabsorb water and chemicals from the glomerular filtrate. N: 1. 010 – 1. 025| | 1. 005| If it is below 1. 003 after a 12 hour period without food or water, renal concentrating ability is impaired and the patient either has generalized renal impairment or nephrogeni c diabetes insipidus. In end-stage renal disease.Having over 1. 035 is either contaminated, contains very high levels of glucose, or the patient may have recently received high density radiopaque dyes intravenously for radiographic studies or low molecular weight dextran solutions| | | Glucose| Glucose is virtually absent from the urine. Less than 0. 1% of glucose normally filtered by the glomerulus appears in urine (< 100 mg/24 hr). N: 0-100mg/dL| | (-)Negative| Presence or Excess sugar in urine means, Glycosuria, generally means diabetes mellitus. | | | Protein| Urine normally contains only a scant amount of rotein, which derives from both the blood and the urinary tract itself. N: 0-30mg/dL| | (-)negative| Trace positive results (which represent a slightly hazy appearance in urine) are equivalent to 10 mg/100 ml or about 150 mg/24 hours (the upper limit of normal). 1+ corresponds to about 200-500 mg/24 hours, a 2+ to 0. 5-1. 5 gm/24 hours, a 3+ to 2-5 gm/24 hours, and a 4+ repres ents 7 gm/24 hours or greater. More than 150 mg/day is defined as proteinuria. Proteinuria > 3. 5 gm/24 hours is severe and known as nephrotic syndrome. | | WBC| Usually, the WBC's are granulocytes. White cells from the vagina, especially in the presence of vaginal and cervical infections, or the external urethral meatus in men and women may contaminate the urine. N: 0- 17 / UL| | 3| Pyuria occurs if the presence of leukocytes is abnormal or increased which may appear with infection in either the upper or lower urinary tract or with acute glomerulonephritis. | | | RBC| finding of red blood cells in the urine (hematuria) is considered abnormalN:0- 11 / UL| | 1| RBC in urine is slightly higher than normal.Significantly high RBC number in urine may point to acute tubular necrosis, benign familial hematuria, calculi, hemophilia, hemorrhagic cystitis, pyelonephritis, renal trauma, renal tuberculosis, renal tumor, or UTI. | | | Epithelial Cells| Renal tubular epithelial cells, usually lar ger than granulocytes, contain a large round or oval nucleus and normally slough into the urine in small numbersN: 0- 17/UL| | 5| If the number sloughed is increased nephrotic syndrome and in conditions leading to tubular degeneration,| | | Cast| Urinary casts are formed only in the distal convoluted tubule (DCT) or the collecting duct (distal nephron).The proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) and loop of Henle are not locations for cast formation. Hyaline casts are composed primarily of a mucoprotein (Tamm-Horsfall protein) secreted by tubule cells. N: 0-1/ UL| | 0| Presence of protein cast formation is often caused by low flow rate, high salt concentration, and low pH, all of which favor protein denaturation and precipitation. blood cell cast are indicative of glomerulonephritis, with leakage of RBC's from glomeruli, or severe tubular damage.White blood cell casts are most typical for acute pyelonephritis, but they may also be present with glomerulonephritis. Their presence indicates i nflammation of the kidney, because such casts will not form except in the kidney. | | | Bacteria| Bacteria are common in urine specimens because of the abundant normal microbial flora of the vagina or external urethral meatus and because of their ability to rapidly multiply in urine standing at room temperature. Therefore, microbial organisms found in all but the most scrupulously collected urines should be interpreted in view of clinical symptoms.N: 0- 278/ UL| | 3| More than 278/ UL of one organism reflects significant bacteriuria. Multiple organisms reflect contamination. | | STOOL ANALYSIS: It is the evaluation of the characteristics of the clean catch fecal specimen. The physical characteristics as well as the contents of the feces are evaluated for the presence of gastrointestinal abnormalities such as infections. SEPTEMBER19,2012| Color| Brown| | | Consistency| Coarse| Unusualities in the stool consistencies may indicate GI abnormalities such as malabsorption and infection.Co arseness or excessive dryness may result from poor hydration status or presence of parasites in the GIT. | | Parasite ova| Trichuris TrichiuraAscaris Lumbricoides| Presence of ova in the stool indicates positive parasitic infection in the gastrointestinal system| | Pus Cells| 2-4/hpp| Pus production is an indicator of GIT infection as a defense mechanism activated by the immune system| Medical Order Order| Rationale| 9/19/121:15am > Please admit under the service of Dr. R.Mata (PC) >Secure consent for admission & mgt >Diagnostics:-CBC c PC-U/A-CXR – APC>Therapeutics:Cefuroxime (100_ 500mg IVTT q 8 hours (ANST)Paracetamol 250mg/5ml, 3ml q 4 hours RTCSalbutamol neb, I neb q 6 hrs>DAT c SAP>IVF : D5IMB 500cc to run @ 55 cc/hr >encourage pt to increase oral fluid intake>TSB for fever>VS q 4 hrs & record pls>I & O q shift, record>will inform AP of this admission>refer PRN, thanks! >Cont. meds & ebulization>fill up official CXR result 8am>Fecalysis3pm(+)LBM X 3>Erceflora I vial BI D >Increase rate of IV to 60cc/hr9. 20pm(+) trushing(+) ascarisStool exam>stat mebendazole (antiox) 50g/ml ,10ml on single dose9/20/128am>cont. meds(-) fever3pm Afebrile >cont. meds>refer for unusualities9/21/128am(-) fever>cont. meds| -To be able to accommodate the patient’s needs for optimum health care and to be able to refer any unusualities immediately and to continue patient monitoring. – This consent legalizes the acceptance and trust of the client to the health practitioner. With this laboratory test, the patient’s condition will be determined. – These medicines have different action thereby treating the client’s symptoms manifested by the client from her present condition-Maintain healthy diet within normal range and since the patient can tolerate any food he desires that is nutritious. Strict aspiration precaution since the patient was a child should be carefull and prevent aspiration-Is a hypertonic solution , for slow administration ess ential to prevent overload (100ml/hr)- To prevent dehydration-To help relieve fever- To obtain baseline data of VS and monitor condition of patient until stable. These measures excessive loss or retention of water in the body. – These medicines have different action thereby treating the client’s symptoms manifested by the client from her present condition. – to analyze the condition of a person's digestive tract in general -To Promote normalization of intestinal flora. -Besides of becoming asource of nutrition it also help replace the water loss by patient due to LBM-An antihelmintics , treatment of parasites present in the patient- These medicines have different action thereby treating the client’s symptoms manifested by the client from her present condition.These medicines have different action thereby treating the client’s symptoms manifested by the client from her present condition. – For the physician to be informed immediately, facilit ating attendance of the unusuality at hand- These medicines have different action thereby treating the client’s symptoms manifested by the client from her present condition. | ————————————————- ————————————————- ————————————————-DRUG STUDY GENERIC NAME: Acetaminophen BRAND NAME:   paracetamol CLASSIFICATION: Antipyretics, Non opiod analgesic MODE OF ACTION: Inhibits the synthesis of prostaglandins that may serve as mediators of pain ; fever, primarily in the CNS. Has no significant anti-inflammatory properties or GI toxicity. THERAPEUTIC EFFECTS: Analgesia. Antipyresis. ORDERED DOSE: 250 mg/ 5 ml, 3ml q 4 (RTC) DATE ORDERED: 9-19-12 SUGGESTED D OSE: 10-15 mg/kg/dose q 4-6 hr as needed INDICATIONS: Mild pain. Fever.CONTRAINDICATIONS: Contraindicated in: Previous hypersensitivity; Products containing alcohol, aspartame, saccharin, sugar, tartrazine (FDC yellow dye #5) should be avoided in patients who have hypersensitivity or intolerance to these compounds. DRUG INTERACTIONS:Drug-Drug: Chronic high dose acetaminophen may increase risk of bleeding with warfarin. SIDE EFFECTS: GI: hepatic failure, hepatotoxicity (overdose) GU: renal failure (high doses/ chronic use Derm: rash, urticaria NURSING RESPONSIBILITIES: 1. ) Monitor blood studies. 2. ) Monitor liver function studies. 3. Monitor renal function studies. 4. ) Check I ; O ratio. (decrease output may indicate renal failure) 5. ) Assess for fever ; pain. 6. ) Assess allergic reaction. 7. ) Assess hepatotoxicity: dark urine, clay colored stools, jaundice, itching, abdominal pain. 8. ) Assess for chronic poisoning : rapid, weak pulse; dyspnea : cold extremities; 9. ) Give dru g with food or milk to decrease gastric symptoms 10. )Tell patient that urine may become dark brown as a result of phenacetin (metabolite of acetaminophen) GENERIC NAME: Cefuroxime BRAND NAME:   Ceftin, ZinacefCLASSIFICATION: Anti-infectives MODE OF ACTION: Bind to bacterial cell wall membrane, causing cell death. ORDERED DOSE: 500 g IVTT q 8 ANST (-) DATE ORDERED: 9-19-12 SUGGESTED DOSE: INDICATIONS: Treatment of following infections caused by susceptible organisms: respiratory tract infections, bone ; joint infections, urinary tract infections, meningitis, gynecologic infections, lyme disease, perioperative prophylaxis CONTRAINDICATIONS: Contraindicated in: Hypersensitivity to cephalosporins, Serious hypersensitivity to penicillins. DRUG INTERACTIONS:Drug-Drug: Probenecid decrease excretion ; increase blood levels. Concurrent use of aminoglycosides or loop diuretics may increase risk of nephrotoxicity. SIDE EFFECTS: CNS: seizures, GI: pseudomembranous colitis, diarrhea, cramps, nausea, vomiting DERM: rashes, urticaria Local: pain at IM site, phlebitis at IV site Misc: anaphylaxis, serum sickness, superinfection NURSING RESPONSIBILITIES: 1) Observe ten rights of administering medication 2) Assess for infection. 3) Observe patients for signs of anaphylaxis. (rash, pruritis, laryngeal edema, etc) 4) Monitor Vital signs specially Temperature ) Advise patient to report signs of superinfection ; allergy. 6) Instruct patient to notify health care professional if fever ; diarrhea develop especially if stool contains blood, pus, or mucus, 7) Advise patient not to treat diarrhea without consulting health care professional. 8) Monitor patient for life threatening adverse effects, including anaphylaxis, steve-johnson 9) Monitor kidney and liver function test results and intake and output 10) Instruct patient to take drug with food GENERIC NAME: Bacillus Clausii BRAND NAME:   Erceflora CLASSIFICATION: antidiarrhealsMODE OF ACTION: Contributes to the recovery of the i ntestinal microbial flora altered during the course of microbial disorders of diverse origin. It produces various vitamins, particularly group B vitamins this contributing to correction of vitamin disorders caused by antibiotics ; chemotherapeutic agents. Promotes normalization of intestinal flora. ORDERED DOSE: q 1 vial BID DATE ORDERED: 9-19-12 SUGGESTED DOSE: Children 2-11 years 1-2 vials of 2  billion/5 mL susp INDICATIONS: for acute diarrhea with duration of ;14 days due to infection drugs or poisons. Chronic or persistent diarrhea with duration of ;14 days.CONTRAINDICATIONS: Contraindicated in: not for use in immunocompromised patients (cancer patients on chemotherapy, patients taking immunosuppressant medications) SIDE EFFECTS: No known side effect or adverse effect. NURSING RESPONSIBILITIES: 1. ) Observe ten rights of administering medication 2. ) Shake Drug well before administration 3. ) Monitor patient for any unusual effects from drug. 4. ) Administer drug within 30 mi nutes after opening container. 5. ) Dilute drug with sweetened milk. , orange, tea. 6. ) Administer drug orally. GENERIC NAME: mebendazole BRAND NAME: VermoxCLASSIFICATION: antihelmintics ORDERED DOSE: 50g/ml DATE ORDERED: 9/19/12 INDICATIONS: Treatment of whipworm, pinworm, roundworm, hookworm, infections. CONTRAINDICATIONS: Contraindicated in: Hypersensitivity. DRUG INTERACTIONS: Drug-Drug: Use with potassium-sparing diuretics or ACE inhibitors or angiotensin ll receptor antagonists may lead to hyperkalemia. Anticholinergics may increase GI mucosal lesions in patients taking wax-matrix potassium chloride preparations. SIDE EFFECTS: CNS: seizures, dizziness, headache GI: abdominal pain, diarrhea, increased liver enzymes. Nausea, vomiting Neuro: numbnessMisc: fever NURSING RESPONSIBILITIES: 1. Observe ten rights of administering medication 2. Administer with food. 3. Disinfect toilet facilities after patient use. 4. Arrange daily for daily laundry of bed linens, towels, undergarment s 5. Assess for temperature, bowel sound ; output 6. Culture for ova ; parasites 7. Monitor hematologic and hepatic studies 8. Advise patient to wash hands before and after eating 9. Teach patient to maintain strict hygiene to prevent reinfection 10. Advise patient that dietary restrictions, fasting, and laxatives aren’t necessary GENERIC NAME: albuterolBRAND NAME:   salbutamol CLASSIFICATION: Bronchodilators MODE OF ACTION: Binds to beta-adrenergic receptors in airway smooth muscle, leading to activation of adenyl cyclase ; increased levels of cyclic-3’, 5’ ORDERED DOSE: 1 neb q 6 DATE ORDERED: 9-19-12 INDICATIONS: Used as bronchodilator to control ; prevent reversible airway obstruction caused by asthma or COPD. CONTRAINDICATIONS: Contraindicated in: Hypersensitivity to adrenergic amines; Hypersensitivity to fluorocarbons. DRUG INTERACTIONS: Drug-Drug: Concurrent use with other adrenergic agents will have increase adrenergic side effects.Use with MAO inhibit ors may lead to hypertensive crisis. SIDE EFFECTS: CNS: nervousness, restlessness, tremor, headache, insomnia CV: chest pain, palpitations, angina, arrhythmias, hypertension GI: nausea, vomiting Neuro: tremor NURSING RESPONSIBILITIES: 1. ) Observe ten rights of administering medication 2. ) Inform patient that albuterol may cause an unusual or bad taste. 3. ) Advise to rinse mouth with water after each inhalation to minimize dry mouth 4. ) Instruct to notify health care professional if no response to the usual dose. 5. ) Chest tapping after each nebulization. . ) Position patient on high back rest position 7. ) Advise to consult physician before taking OTC med, natural/ herbal products, or alcohol with this therapy. 8. ) do not give a food immediately it can cause vomiting 9. ) Monitor serum electrolyte levels 10. )Monitor for hypersensitivity reactions and paradoxical bronchospasm. ————————————†”———- ————————————————- ————————————————- RELATED NURSING THEORY ————————————————- Florence NightingaleShe stated in her nursing notes that nursing â€Å"is an act of utilizing the environment of the patient to assist him in his recovery† , that it involves the nurse's initiative to configure environmental settings appropriate for the gradual restoration of the patient's health, and that external factors associated with the patient's surroundings affect life or biologic and physiologic processes, and his development The factors posed great significance during Nightingale's time, when health institutions had poor sanitation, and health workers had little education and training and were frequently incompetent and unreliable in attending to the needs of the patients. Also emphasized in her environmental theory is the provision of a quiet or noise-free and warm environment, attending to patient's dietary needs by assessment, documentation of time of food intake, and evaluating its effects on the patient.This theory was applicable to our client because of that the disease of our client is related to its environment. Our client has brochopneumonia which can be afflicted with our environment plus a weak immune system which initiates the disease process. Our client was also positive to Ascaris Lumbricoides and Trichuris Trichiura in which we could really tell that they are having a problem in terms of taking care of themselves like paying attention to their personal hygiene and the like in their community,. Environment is such a big factor to use and all other disease process that is done to our client. Envir onment provides the things that we that may do good or bad to us.Environment is also not always defined by the things around you but also the things that we can provide such as silent and soothing environment which is initially the best type of prevention for us. Know regarding to our client the factors that initiate healing status of our client is that the concern for sanitation it shows that having been infected with ascaris and trichuris is affected by unsanitary environment and other factors such as place of living, lifestyle etc. We must provide a sanitary environment to help boost immune system and ease the way for recovery and also we must initiate a supportive atmosphere to enhance the capabilities of client to rely to boost self confidence in having good prognosis and having a healthy and not anxious set of mind set. ———————————————— ———â€⠀Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€- NURSING CARE PLAN ————————————————- DISCHARGE ————————————————- PLAN Medication * Explain to the patient and significant others the reason why the drugs were prescribed by the doctor.  ® Providing sufficient information about treatment aids patient and family education as well as gains cooperation. * Encourage patient and family not to miss a dose during the whole duration of therapy. It is important to take your medicine exactly as you are told.  ® Medications taken full course give full therapeutic effects to the patient.In addition, this would also prevent the development of antibiotic resistant microorganisms. * Instruct the family to immediately stop medic ations if adverse reactions occur and refer immediately to the physician.  ® This prevents the occurrence of further progression of life-threatening adverse reactions. * Advice patient’s significant others to ask before taking any food or herb supplements, vitamins, or medicine that he/she bought at the store.  ® Some of these may negatively interact with the drugs that are being taken. Exercise * Instruct the family to provide adequate rest and sleep.  ® This aids the patient’s recovery and helps him regain strength. Tell client to continue deep breathing exercises, also instruct family for the exercise needed.  ® This is to promote good blood circulation and relaxation. * Encourage ambulation and active range of motions.  ® It mobilizes and loosen secretions. Treatment * Encourage the patient to follow the doctor’s orders  ® It is important to take your medicine and follow instructions exactly as what they are told. * Instruct patient and family to follow-up check-up as indicated by the physician.  ® Follow up check-up can help in monitoring the progress, reassessment, and evaluation of patient’s condition. * Encourage the family to comply with the treatment regimen for the patient. This helps by improving the recovery rate of the patient. Hygiene * Encourage the patient and significant others to wash hands more often especially when after using the bathroom.  ® To deter spread of microorganisms which cause various illnesses. * Encourage bathing daily.  ®This is to prevent spread of microorganism and promote self esteem. * Instruct the patient to promote good oral hygiene especially after eating.  ® This lessens the occurrence of dental caries. * Encourage patient to incorporate in his habit the proper way of washing her hands and covering her mouth when coughing.  ® This prevents the spread of microorganisms and further contamination. Out-Patient Advise patient and family to go back to the hospital in a spec ific date for follow-up check-up after discharge.  ® This enables the physician to reassess and evaluate the health status of the patient. * Consult a doctor if there are any problems or any complications encountered.  ® This calls for immediate action or interventions which may prevent furthermore complications. Diet * Diet as tolerated as much as possible.  ® To meet the daily requirements of the body as well as to have an optimum nutritional diet. * Encourage patient to drink 8 glasses of fluids a day.  ® To improve hydration as well as to excrete wastes accordingly. * Encourage to ensure safe water sources or if necessary, boil water for drinking. This is to eliminate the risk of any bacterial or parasitic infection. * Encourage to avoid eating raw foods such as raw meat. If dealing with fresh vegetables, wash it thoroughly with water.  ®This is to avoid microorganisms which could be present that can cause illnesses * Encourage the family to provide nutritious foods su ch as fruits and vegetables.  ® Fruits and vegetables are rich in essential vitamins and nutrients, which aid in supplying the optimum nutrition for the patient. ————————————————- ————————————————- REFERENCE (s) Reference (s) : * Bare, B. , Cheever, K. , Hinkle, J. , Smeltzer, S. (2009).Brunner and Suddarth's Textbook of Medical Surgical Nursing 12th edition. Lippincott Williams ; Wilkins * Bowden, V. , Greenberg, C. (2008). Pediatric Nursing Procedures Second Edition. Lippincott Williams ; Wilkins. * Maglaya,A .. [et. al]. (2009). Argonauta Corporation. Marikina City, Philippines * Mosby’s Pocket Dictionary. (2010). Elsevier. Singapore. * http://www. slideshare. net/crisbertc/pneumonia-4775641 * http://www. parasitesinhumans. org/ascaris-lumbricoides-gi ant-roundworm. html * http://www. medterms. com/script/main/art. asp? articlekey=12961 * http://whqlibdoc. who. int/publications/2006/9280640489_eng. pdf * Department of Health * World Health Organization

Differences in Worldview Exhibited by the Different Social Classes

Humans are social animals. They can not live alone in this world all by themselves. All humans need other humans in order to live their lives properly. They might be able to live without fulfilling their emotional desires etc but they can certainly not live without fulfilling certain material needs such as food. For example, even if a person manages to live without friends and family who fulfill emotional needs and needs of belongingness, he will not be able to live properly without the farmer who grows food or the barber who cuts his hair.Thus, humans live in large groups of people where different people perform different duties and make each other’s lives simpler, easier and better to live. If one person does something, he needs the other one to do something else and this way, they exchange the benefits of performing one task rather properly instead of doing many things in a haphazard manner. These groups of people are called societies. Societies are the basis of lifestyles and cultures (Fiona, 1997). However, this all is not that simple.Some humans in the societies are much better off than many others while, in contrast, some are way below the line. Some enjoy best opportunities of life while some don’t even have proper food to eat. Hence, there exists a whole system of social classes in which there are various blocks or sub-groups of people based upon various factors like income brackets, life styles, cultures, religions, nationalities and so on. (Crothers, 1996) Social Classes These social classes perform various different duties in the societies and have entirely different lifestyles and outlook of life.These classes live physically in the same world, but in actuality, their worlds are absolutely different. In fact, different is a very weak a word to describe how apart they are. The people belonging to these classes have entirely different world views and perceive the world totally differently depending on there life styles and circumstances . Although different types of societies are divided into various kinds of social classes, in its essence, there are three basic social classes based on the income levels that exist in almost every society (Fiona, 1997).These societies are (Crothers, 1996): †¢ Upper Class (The Elite) †¢ Middle Class (The Moderate) †¢ Lower Class (The Poor) These classes do not exist in isolation, but are intermingled. Moreover, it is more like a continuum, that is, transition classes like Upper-Middle Class exist as well. These are the class differences that advertisers should be aware of in targeting different classes of people. World Views Exhibited by Social Classes The perception of the world, by the social classes, varies widely.The rich people have no idea what poverty is and what is it like to earn living on a daily basis. The Upper Class or the Elite people sit at the executive positions giving orders to the working class (The Middle and Lower Classes). To the rich, the world i s heaven where they can whatever they want, whenever they want, however they want. They just wish for it and bingo! Generally they disregard the poor, as if it is their birth right to be rich. Whatever they do is right and they have they right to exploit everyone and everything below them.  (Summer, 2008)In contrast, the working class’s life revolves around work and is spent struggling balancing work and life. However, the life of middle class (generally the educated portion of the working class) is comparatively easier than that of the lower class (mostly uneducated or poorly educated). The middle class people live a comparatively moderate life when it comes to income and fulfillment of desires (Crothers, 2008). They perceive the world to be generally uncomfortable but not like hell.For them, there is misery, exploitation and tough luck in this world, but there is a ray of hope as well, since due to their education and experiences, they do have a chance to work hard and ju mp up to the upper class. Out of all classes, the lower class is the one which suffers the most in these and other dimensions. For them, there is very rarely a ray of hope of getting any better. To them, the world is like hell, full of miseries, poverty and exploitation (be it social, moral, political or any other exploitation) and life can never be good no matter how hard they try.(OCLC, 1971)ConclusionTherefore, I conclude, that although these social classes exist in the same world under the same sun, the perception that they have of this world is entirely different. The rich continue to exploit the poor while the poor keep on being exploited, living in disappointments, doing nothing about it. The rich has absolutely no idea what poor goes through, each and every single day while the poor has no clue to what it is like to be rich. (Summer, 2008)

Taran Swan at Nickelodeon Latin America Term Paper

Taran Swan at Nickelodeon Latin America - Term Paper Example Due to her personal need, the management is left with considerable options how they could continuously perform operation on a normal basis, and without interrupting the possible opportunities of Nickelodeon in Latin America in the future. This report tries to recommend important suggestions how the organization could effectively emancipate action based on these crucial concerns without possibly compromising its future opportunities in Latin America. This report starts with the actual issues and assumptions of the actual scenario Nickelodeon in Latin America is facing. This is followed by a brief analysis of management functions which have been playing elemental role towards the success of Taran from the past and even for future achievement of best opportunities. Problems are presented and the required actions to address them are also elaborated in detail. Keywords: Nickelodeon, management functions, management, leadership Issues and Assumptions Taran Swan, branch director and general manager of Nickelodeon Latin America is faced with various options how she could deliver her role effectively far from Miami to New York after her doctor recommended she had to stay at home for the duration of her pregnancy. This is not going to be an easy situation on her part especially that there were major projects that could either make or break Nickelodeon in the future such as the Cablevision/TCI and the Brazil-dedicated feed. Swan was faced with two major important issues in order to effectively manage or lead her team. She needs to consider her leadership style and working relationships while working with her team from afar. Then she also needs to consider a possibility of appointing an interim director who would take her post while she is absent, which for her, needs to have substantive criteria and evaluations. Assuming Swan would continue work with her team so as to ensure maximum achievement of various opportunities like those for Cablevision/TCI and the Brazil-dedicat ed feed even at a far distance, she therefore needs to enhance her ability to formulate and initiate the whole plan, extra-organize her team, lead them and even ensure a high level of control. Assuming further that she would appoint interim director for the mean time, Swan should therefore consider certain criteria in order to choose the one with excellent qualification that would be able to fit to the prevailing task. Swan needs to consider strategic human resource management which would include but also may not limit to human resource selection process. The case â€Å"Taran Swan at Nickelodeon Latin America† based on the above issues and assumptions is therefore composed of complex management activities which can be subdivided into four functions: planning, organizing, leading and controlling. Analysis Planning The first management function clearly indicated in the case is planning. Obviously it is here where Swan started everything how she was able to prove herself that sh e could actually make it to Nickelodeon Latin America as a branch director and general manager. In the industry where Nickelodeon belongs, planning plays a crucial role as a gateway to its success. As a novice in Nickelodeon business from the beginning, Taran learned to appreciate the significance of planning activity, and she found at the later part there were more complex things to be considered in the actual planning activity rather than relying on pure assumptions and estimates or projections. Planning has become integral part to leapfrog company’s success and achieve competitive advantage (Porter, 1998; Schnaars, 1998). In planning activity, Swan was able to understand the importance of ensuring the achievement of a

Applying for the PhD program Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Applying for the PhD program - Essay Example I am keenly aware of the unlimited possibilities inherent in this field. IT represents the convergence of Computer Science and Business. It is the bridge which connects cutting edge technology and commerce. To me, it is IT which will enable the practical benefits of Computer Science to reach the common man. In this context, I am particularly interested in focusing my future research on Web Technologies, XML and Web Services, Document Engineering and e-Business.  I see myself in the vanguard of Kuwait’s efforts to harness the power of IT in furthering the development of the national economy. I consider my life-long love of learning and books to be one of my major strengths. I believe that, whatever be the career one chooses in life, the first step towards achieving that goal is the acquisition of knowledge and practical experience in the chosen field. I can think of no better way of gaining a more in-depth exposure to Computer Science and Information Technology, and keeping p ace with the very latest developments in the field, than by earning a Doctorate from the University of Kuwait. I am confident that this will be the opportunity of a lifetime for me to be guided by the best minds in this field and gain valuable insights from my mentors.

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If time travel were possible, to what time period and place in history would you return to live Give reasons for your decision to live in this period and locat - Essay Example It is during this time that one of the world's greatest writers originated, William Shakespeare. It was not only an era of romance but also one of reality. The poor of the country were treated well and their well being was thought of. Even though peace was not absolute but it was general. When Queen Elizabeth inherited the throne, the country was bankrupt. It was her policies that restored some of the huge debts that the country was under and increased prosperity. In terms of economic development, the first stock exchange was developed during this period by Sir Thomas Gresham. Before this period, witches were prosecuted and torture was common for all types of crimes. Once Elizabeth came to power, such events became rare, although they did take place but not on such a scale to be noticed. There was much research in science and technology. Most of these achievements were in the field of navigation. There were many small and insignificant inventions as well. Bottled beer, one of the things we take for granted was invented during this era in 1568. Among other things were the flush toilet, knitting machine, telescope, pencil and pocket watch. The first time the English tried to settle in North America was during this era. Women were brought up to believe that they were inferior to men and that their job was to obey the men in their household.

Global Warming Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Global Warming - Research Paper Example Global Warming There are three main ways in which human activities lead to an escalation in the total amount of the greenhouse gases; burning of fossil fuel, deforestation, and agricultural as well as industrial activities. During the combustion of fossil fuels, large amounts of carbon dioxide are produced. Fossils get burnt in order to aid in production of energy that can help in transportation, cooling, heating, and electricity generation. 80% of the total carbon dioxide added in the atmosphere comes from burnt fossil fuels (Spellman & Whiting, 2006). In addition, land use change for example; clearing lands for ranching, agriculture or logging contributes positively in the increased levels of carbon dioxide. Plants contain carbon which gets emitted as carbon dioxide when plants decay or burn. In addition, ozone gas and chlorofluorocarbons results to an increase in the levels of green house gases in the atmosphere. Ozone gas is present in the troposphere, and it emerges from industries. Most of untreated industrial wastes contain methane. Chlorofluorocarbons found in refrigerators and air conditioners also deplete stratospheric ozone layer. However, there are some scientists who dismiss the fact that, global warming is as a result of human activities. Abdussamatov for instance, has come up with a theory that dismisses the idea of greenhouse gases as the leading cause of global warming. He argues that greenhouse gases have minimal influence on earth’s temperature (Pasachoff & Filippenko, 2007). ... During the  combustion  of fossil fuels, large amounts of carbon dioxide  are produced. Fossils get burnt in order to  aid  in production of energy that can help in transportation, cooling, heating, and electricity generation. 80% of the total carbon dioxide added in the atmosphere comes from burnt fossil fuels (Spellman & Whiting, 2006). In addition, land use change  for example; clearing lands for ranching, agriculture or logging contributes positively in the increased levels of carbon dioxide. Plants contain carbon which gets emitted as carbon dioxide when plants decay or burn. In addition, ozone gas and chlorofluorocarbons results to an increase in the levels of green house gases in the atmosphere. Ozone gas is present in the troposphere, and it emerges from industries. Most of untreated industrial wastes contain methane. Chlorofluorocarbons found in refrigerators and air conditioners also deplete stratospheric ozone layer. However, there are some scientists who dismi ss the fact that, global warming is as a result of human activities. Abdussamatov for instance, has come up with a theory that dismisses the idea of greenhouse gases as the leading cause of global warming. He argues that greenhouse gases have minimal influence on earth’s temperature (Pasachoff & Filippenko, 2007). Variation of temperature takes place mostly on Earth and Mars. He, therefore, believes that Carbon dioxide has no influence in Mars. Furthermore, he believes that, if greenhouse gases were to be absent, there would be no life on Earth. Instead, the whole planet would just be a ball of ice. He, however, says that the global warming is due to wobbles in Earth’s

MERCOSUR and FTAA Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

MERCOSUR and FTAA - Essay Example DP, climbed from $650 billion to $990 billion, and direct foreign investment soared from $2.6 billion to $20.24 billion.†(Merco Press 2006)It is the fourth largest integrated market after the European Union (EU), North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and ASEAN. Despite the setbacks like devaluation in Brazil and Argentine crisis hindering the sustained growth of the sector, the bloc continued to move forward. However the trading block has to face crucial tests with in connection with the Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA). This paper envisages bringing out the features and issues that makes the relationship between the block countries and the developed nations a difficult one especially in the political and economic sphere. MERCOSUR the â€Å"Common Market of the Southern Cone’ was formed by the Treaty of Asuncion and consists of Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay with Chile and Bolivia becoming associate members. â€Å"Its purpose is to establish a common market which would include the free movement of goods, services and factors of production, the elimination of customs duties and non-tariff restrictions, the establishment of a common external tariff and the adoption of a common trade policy, the coordination of positions in regional and international economic and commercial for a and the coordination of macro economic and sectoral policies amongst the member states in the areas of foreign trade, agriculture, industry, fiscal and monetary matters, foreign exchange and capital, services, customs, transport and communications and any other means that may have been agreed upon† (Malcolm Rowat, et al. 1997) There were several factors connected with the member countries which have stood in the way of the growth of MERCOSUR. While there was a possibility for building up regional integration for the clustering less developed smaller countries around a more developed and larger neighbouring country, this advantage could not be taken by MERCOSUR. This

Project Initiation Document 'PID' Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Project Initiation Document 'PID' - Assignment Example With other regions offering international higher education courses such as Canada, US, and China; the demand for UK higher education has declined (Universities UK, 2014). In this case, the project aims to accomplish the following objectives: Three areas provide the rationale for this project. Firstly, the UK higher education sector has suffered significant drop of 49% in enrolling international students. Secondly, sectors such as U.S., Canada, and China have increased demand as UK system continues to drop. Third, following political stability and economic improvements, a higher number of Saudi students is seeking higher education institutions to study in. The decrease in the number of international students studying in the UK from the year 2012 to 2014 has impacted various areas of the education system. It is considered that higher education adds significant contribution to the national GDP and also invited diversity. However, following the decrease in students, it is difficult to sustain the system. This project aims at providing a platform that would enable UK universities to recruit Saudi Arabian students in an effort to regulate the drop and sustain full capacity tutoring. The increase in the number of international students taking courses in the U.S., Canada, and China can be attributed to the drop of international students in the UK. Thus, this project aims at targeting Saudi Arabian students in order to prevent the UK education system from collapsing (Universities UK, 2014). The project serves the purpose of inviting Saudi Arabian students to fill the gap that has recently been experienced through international students’ demand for higher education in other sectors. Finally, Saudi Arabia is a Middle East nation that depends on oil. A stable political environment and wealth generation has spawned a generation that requires higher education to manage businesses. Due to increased demand, the project targets Saudi Arabian students who have recently

Okonkwo Essay Example for Free

Okonkwo Essay Some regard the arts as having an extra-artistic cognitive function, that they have a message about mans place in the world which might have social or political implications. For example, there might be a case for supposing that the arts have an important function as a medium for social criticism and transformation. In any case, there is a widespread belief that the arts have a higher purpose to educate by encouraging introspection and sometimes making us think about how we should live our lives. Two heads are better than one. Learning nd working in groups involves shared or learned values, resources, and ways of doing things. Group projects can reinforce skills that are relevant to both group and individual work, including the ability to: break task into parts, plan and manage time and gain communication skills. What strategies were used? Many of my classmates including myself would have preferred to work on this project individually, however every now and then more hands make for lighter work. When my partner and I got together to begin our project we had decided to split the project in half. Same an equal amount of work. I wouldnt say we used and specific strategies to begin the Mexican Revolution project. We did however follow the some of the guidelines of the design cycle to begin which included: plan, investigate, design and create. What knowledge was acquired? Because my partner had so much knowledge of the Mexican Revolution, she was able to help me clearly understand/clarify certain things that had occurred that I was uncertain of. Because we had to do some research on our own I gained more on the revolution, to the porfiriato era where porfito Diaz himself introduced railroads, to ow important the constitution was for the people. What skills were utilized and developed? Group projects can also help students develop skills to collaborative efforts, allowing students such as myself to: delegate roles and responsibilities, share perspectives, knowledge and skills, hold one another and be held accountable. (We were able to use pervious knowledge from class and what we have been taught to be able to complete the project. I was able to develop and gain more knowledge of the Mexican revolution because of my partners knowledge. ) What will be done ditterently in the tuture? A lot of things will be done differently in the future. Time management of course. We ended up doing it the same week it was due which caused some stress on each of us individually. Although we completed out project in time I would have liked to have started planning the week she told us Just to have had a head start and know what we were doing then actually doing it last minute and not really knowing what we were going to do. Even if we decided to split the work, I would have wanted to still worked together since it was a group project. But above all, it was a great experience working with another individual. 378

Value Chain Management Essay Example for Free

Value Chain Management Essay Explain how operations strategy is influenced by customer and business prospective and where in a standard value chain you would expect to see your chosen topic addressed. INTRODUCTION Every organization’s operations strategies are concerned with getting things done; ie producing merchandise for customers. However, most people believe that operations management is only concerned with short-term, day-to-day issues. In essence, all business organisations are concerned with how their business will survive and prosper in future. In contemporary terms, most business strategies are recognised with a plan as part of or a set of intentions that will set theirr long-term directions of their actions that are needed to ensure future organisational success. Thus, no matter how strong their plan is or how noble their intentions, are, any organisation’s strategy can only become a meaningful reality, in practice, if it’s operationally instigated. Every organisation’s operations are equally important because most organisational activity comprises the day-to-day activities within the operations function. It’s the process of daily actions of operations, when considered in their totality that constitute the organisation’s long-term strategic direction. The relationship between an organisation’s strategy and the operations involved is a key determinant of its ability to achieve long-term success or even survival. Organisational improvement is only likely to result if short-term operations activities are consistent with long-term strategies and hence, make a contribution to competitive advantage. The relationship between corporate operations and the other business functions is similarly important. The objective of the operations function is to produce goods and services required by customers whilst managing resources efficiently. This can then lead to conflicts within an organisation. Conflicts between operations and selling functions are likely to centre on the marketing aspect to ensure that operations concentrate on satisfying customers. Whilst this may seem enduring, marketing will usually want operations to suit customer needs under usual circumstances. Therefore, this is likely to lead to demands to produce  bigger volumes, more varieties, better quality, a faster response, and so on, all of which are likely to lead to less efficient operations. Conflicts within the operations, the accounting and finance functions, on the other hand, are likely to centre on the desire of accounting and finance to want operations to manage resources as efficiently as possible. This will pull operations in exactly the opposite direction of that desired by marketing. Conflicts within operations and the human resource management function are likely to centre on issues of recruitment, selection, training, management and the reward of those employed within operations. For example, operational managers may want to vary organisation-wide policies in order to meet local needs; a move likely to be resisted by human resource managers. The operations function lies at the heart of any organisation and interacts with all the other functions. As such, achieving agreement about what decision areas lie within the remit of operations, and what should be the basis of decision-making within operations is an essential part of ensuring the consistency of action over time necessary for a successful organisational strategy. OPERATIONS STRATEGY My introduction towards operational strategic purposes has highlighted the strategic importance of operations to organisational performance. The importance of operational strategy is essential to an organisation as this will determine the extent to which its business strategy can be implemented, but also as its operations can be a source of competitive advantage within any businesses value chain. First I will outline what exactly is meant by the term operations strategy. Slack et al, argues that an operations strategy concerns the pattern of strategic decisions and actions which set the role, objectives and activities of operations. His use of this term ‘pattern’ implies a consistency in strategic decisions and actions over time. This concept is consistent with a theorist guru, Henry Mintzberg’s view of strategy as being a ‘pattern in a stream of actions’ (Mintzberg and Waters, 1985). Henry Mintzberg, views strategy as being realised through a combination of deliberate and emergent actions. An organisation can have an intended strategy, perhaps as a set of strategic plans. However, only some  of his intended strategy may be realized through deliberate strategy. Some of the intentions may be unrealized. Strategies which take no regard of operational feasibility are more likely to have low marketing prospects, remaining merely as a set of intentions. Strategies may also emerge from actions taken within the organisations functions, which over time form a consistent pattern. Actions of this kind will, almost inevitably, arise from within the operations of the organisation. So, whether intentionally planned or otherwise, the business operations are bound to have a major impact on the formation of organisational strategy. It’s often said that strategy is an issue which is somehow separate from day-to-day organisational activities. If taken to extremes, this can result in strategies being regarded as some kind of cerebral activity performed by superior’s who need to be removed from day-to-day operational pressures. Theorists such as Mintzberg is amongst those who point out to the dangers of managers becoming detached from the basics of the enterprise. Mintzberg and Quinn (1991) call this the ‘don’t bore me with the operating details; I’m here to tackle the big issues’ syndrome. They caution that, ‘the big issues are rooted in little details’. Operational strategy, the processes and content: A. Operational strategy processes: How an organisation sets about developing appropriate operation strategies and B. Operational strategy content: What the key decision areas are and what needs to be addressed in developing any operational strategy. OPERATIONS STRATEGY PROCESS As discussed above, operational strategies have a vertical relationship in the corporate hierarchy within business and corporate strategies, and horizontally with the other functional strategies, mostly recognised within marketing strategies. Operations strategy might come about in a top-down or a bottom-up process with regard to business and corporate strategies. Similarly, an operations strategy might be developed in response to market requirements (i.e. market-led) or be based on the capabilities of its operational resources (i.e. operations-led). As this gives rise to four  perspectives on operation strategy (Slack and Lewis, 2002). Each perspective places a different emphasis on the nature of the operations strategy process. Top-down The top down perspective is the operations strategy which it comprises of, and is supportive of the organisation’s business purposes; an operations strategy that the organisation uses to realise its business strategy within any value chain. This concept follows in line with the perspective of the Hayes and Wheelwright stage 3 organisational strategy process. According to this theory, the process of developing an operations strategy would follow Skinner’s approach of identifying an operation’s ‘task’ (Skinner, 1969). The task for operations would be determined logically from the business strategy. Using Slack et al.’s, five operations performance objectives theory, as one way of articulating the operations task. For example, if the organisation’s business strategy involves the offering of low pricing, then the operation’s task should be one of achieving low costs in operations. If the business strategy is based on offering customers fast delivery, then the operations task should be one of achieving speed in operations, and so forth. In a multi-business organisation, the top-down perspective emphasises operations strategy being linked to corporate strategy via the business strategy of each business unit. This then raises the question of whether it is possible to talk of ‘corporate’ operations strategy. If corporate operations strategy means commonality, in all aspects of operations, then this would only be possible if each business unit has similar business strategies and similar operations tasks. (Johnson and Scholes, 1999) However, some theorists such as Hayes et al would argue that any corporate operational strategy does not mean that every facet of operations must be the same in each business unit. Rather, operations decisions are considered enormously at the corporate level with a view to meeting corporate strategic objectives. A failure to do this means that operations decisions are taken only at the level of the business unit, with a view to meeting needs of that business unit. The dangers of doing this have been pointed out by theories, who caution against letting the needs of the business unit dominate strategic thinking. This can lead to operational competences being confined  within individual business units, thereby restricting their future development, which includes preventing their spread to other business units and limiting opportunities for synergistic developments across the corporation. This can be particularly important in multi-site, multi-national enterprises. ( Prahlad and Hamel, 1990) Bottom-up The bottom-up perspective is one which sees the operations strategy as an element emerging through a series of actions and decisions taken over time within operations. These actions or decisions might at first seem to appear to be somewhat risky as operations managers respond to customer demands, seek to solve specific problems, copy good practices in other organizations, etc. However, they usually coincide over time to form a coherent pattern recognisable as an operations strategy. The actions then taken within this kind of strategy are likely to be characterized by a continuous series of sporadic improvements rather than the large one-off technologically led changes that require large capital investments in new plant and machinery. The bottom-up perspective is one where the organisation learns from its experiences, developing and enhancing its operational capabilities as operations managers try new things out in an almost experimental routine using their workplaces as a kind of ‘learning laboratory’ (Leonard-Barton, 1992). Easy Jet Case Study Although EasyJet only undertook its first flight in 1995, when it operated two routes (London Luton to Glasgow and Edinburgh), ten years later, the budget airline offered 212 routes to 64 European airports and transported over 29 million passengers in 2005. EasyJet now carries more passengers within Europe than British Airways. Analysts expect EasyJet and its Irish based rival Ryanair, to both overtake all traditional airlines to become the largest short-haul operators in Europe by the end of the decade. The Luton based airline is known as continuously expanding, recently announcing the purchase of a further 20 Airbus A319 planes to service the ever increasing number of routes it operates. In 2005 EasyJet carried up to 30 million  passengers, up from 25.7 million in 2004, making it a  £1.3 billion business! Despite record high fuel level costs, profits were up and around 10 per cent to  £68 million. Passenger numbers rose 21 per cent to 29.6 million and the load factor, indicating how many seats are filled, was 85.2 per cent, reflecting the airline’s popularity. The low cost lines like EasyJet have revolutionised the airline industry in Europe. Modelled on South West Airlines in the USA, these airlines have not only helped create a whole new market of cost-conscious travellers but have taken market share from established operators like British Airways and become the most profitable airlines in Europe. To be profitable, these airlines have to achieve low costs to match the low fares, which are the main attraction to their passengers. With its head office as a large tin shed adjacent to the main taxiway at unfashionable Luton Airport, all of EasyJet’s operations are aimed at minimising costs. This is done in a number of ways: Use of the Internet to reduce distribution costs. EasyJet sells around 95 per cent of all seats over the Internet. Its online booking system uses a variable pricing system to try to maximize load factors.(Prices start very low – sometimes free, and rise as seats are filled.) The fuller the aircraft the lower the unit cost of travel. (Scholes and Johnson,1999, pg12) Ticketless travel Passengers are emailed with their travel details and booking reference numbers. This helps reduce significantly the cost of issuing, distributing, processing and reconciling millions of tickets each year. Neither does EasyJet pre-assign seats on board. Passengers sit where they like. This eliminates an unnecessary complexity and speeds up passenger boarding. No free on board catering. Eliminating free catering on board reduces cost and unnecessary bureaucracy. Passengers can purchase food and refreshments on board. Efficient use of airports. EasyJet flies to the less crowded airports of smaller European cities and prefers the secondary airports in the major cities. These also have lower  landing charges and normally offer faster turnarounds as there are fewer air movements. EasyJet’s efficient ground operations enable them to achieve turnarounds of less than 30 minutes. This means EasyJet can achieve extra rotations on the high-frequency routes, maximising the utilization of aircraft. EasyJet’s ability to offer point-to point travel means that it does not have to worry about onward connections for passengers and their baggage, further simplifying its operations. Paperless operations. EasyJet have embraced the concept of their paperless office, with all its management and administration undertaken entirely on IT systems. These can be accessed through the use of servers from anywhere in the world thereby enhancing flexibility in the running of the airline. (Scholes and Johnson,1999, pg12) Many of the manufacturing practices that are now considered leading edge such as JIT, TQM, Statistical Process Control, were developed in just; such a fashion by Japanese manufacturers responding to the constraints placed upon them in the aftermath of the Second World War. One of the problems associated with this perspective is that the organization may not recognize what its operations strategy is. Mills et al. (1998) have developed a technique that aims to overcome this by enabling managers to construct a visual representation of operations strategy as realized. It does this by tapping into the organization’s collective memory, whether written or verbal, to map all of their most significant events in operations over the previous number of years. This should enable managers to recognise the patterns that now make up the existing operation’s strategy. Market-led The market-led perspective is one where the operations strategy is developed in response to the market environment in which the organisation operates. There’s a number of approaches within operations strategy that suggest how this might be done. The best known of these theorists is that of Terry Hill (1985). He suggests that an organisation’s operations strategy should be linked to its marketing strategy by considering how its products and  services win orders in the market place. He believes it’s possible to identify two types of competitive criteria in any market. Market qualifying criteria are those factors that must be satisfied before customers will consider making a purchase in the first place. Order winning criteria, on the other hand, are the factors in which customers ultimately make their purchasing decision. For example, for many airline passengers, the order winning criteria is price, with criteria such as destination city, time of flights and convenience of travel to and from airports being market qualifying criteria. For others, notably business travellers, the order winning criteria may be factors such as in-flight service or total travel time. Consequently, an operations strategy should be developed which will satisfy market qualifying criteria, but excel at order winning criteria for the market segment that the operation wishes to serve. Platts and Gregory 1990, use an approach that audits the products or groups of products that the organisation offers to its markets. The aim is to identify any gaps between market requirements for particular products and services and the performance of the organisation’s operations in delivering those products and services. First the market requirements for the product or service are analysed in terms of various competitive factors (such as cost, quality, reliability). The performance of the organization’s operations against those factors are then assessed. An operations strategy should be developed which will enable operations to match the level of performance required by customers in each of the competitive criteria. Operations-led The operations-led perspective is one in which its excellence in operations is used to drive the organisation’s strategy. This is in line with the Hayes and Wheelwright stage 4 organisation and fits with the resource-based view (RBV) of strategy that currently dominates the strategic management literature. The premise of the RBV is that superior performance comes from the way that an organization acquires, develops and deploys its resources and builds its capabilities rather than the way it positions itself in the market place (Barney, 1991; Wernerfelt, 1984). Thus, the process of strategy development should be based on a sound understanding of current operational capabilities and an analysis of how these could be developed in  the future. This can then provide the basis for decisions about which markets are likely to be the best in which to deploy current and future capabilities, which competitors are likely to be most vulnerable and how attacks from competitors might best be countered (Hayes et al., 2005). Mills et al. (2002) have developed methods through which organizations can apply these ideas in practice. This involves undertaking an analysis of the resources that have underpinned the activities of a business unit over an extended period of time (at least the previous three to five years). Six resource categories, which are not mutually exclusive, are used: tangible resources, knowledge resources skills and experience, systems and procedural resources, cultural resources and values, network resources and resources important for change. The resources are evaluated against three criteria: value, sustainability and versatility. Resources that individually or collectively score highly in these criteria are considered to be important resources. They are sources of existing or potential competitive advantage to the organization. OPERATIONS STRATEGY: CONTENT What then are the key decision areas of operations management that need to be considered when an organization is developing an operations strategy? Although there are a number of classifications in use, operations management scholars generally agree (e.g. Leong et al., 1990) that the major strategic decision areas in operations can be conveniently divided into ten categories under two broad headings: structure (the physical attributes of operations; the hardware) and infrastructure (the people and systems of operations; the software). The structural decision areas comprise: Facilities: the location, size and focus of operational resources. These decisions are concerned with where to locate production facilities, how large each facility should be, what goods or services should be produced at each location, what markets each facility should serve, etc. Capacity: the capacity of operations and their ability to respond to changes in customer demand. These decisions are concerned with the use of facilities, for example through shift patterns, working hours and staffing levels. Decisions about capacity will affect the organisation’s ability to serve particular markets from a given location.  Process technology: the technology of the equipment used in operations processes. For example, the degree of automation used, the configuration of equipment, and so on. Supply network: the extent to which operations are conducted in-house or are outsourced. Decisions about vertical integration are also concerned with the choice of suppliers, their location, the extent of dependence on particular suppliers, and how relationships with suppliers are managed. Structural decisions often involve major capital investment decisions, which once made will set the direction of operations for many years to come. They invariably impact the resources and capabilities of an organisation, determining its potential future output. It may be prohibitively expensive to change such decisions once implemented, and hence these must be considered to be truly strategic decisions for the organisation. It may be much easier to change the organisation’s marketing strategy (e.g. its target markets, or its promotional activities) than it is to change its operations strategy with respect to the structural decision areas. Infrastructure decision areas comprise: * Planning /Control: the systems used for planning and controlling operations. * Quality: the use of quality management policies and practices. * Work Organisation: Business structures, responsibilities and accountabilities in operations. * Human Resources: recruitment and selection, training and development, management style. * New Product Development: the systems and procedures used to develop and design new products and services. * Performance Measurement: financial and non-financial performance management and its linkage to recognition and reward systems. These issues are important to every organisation as this involves the use made up of the operating hardware as discussed above. It is possible to change aspects of operations infrastructure more quickly and easily than the case for operations structure. Nonetheless the difficulty of doing so should not be underestimated or neither should the impact of making inappropriate infrastructural decisions parallel. Conclusion Organisational strategy is concerned with the actions a company takes in order to survive and prosper within the environment it operates over the long-term. Strategy can exist at three levels in an organisation: which are; corporate, business and functional. Any organisation’s operations strategy includes the totality of the actions and decisions taken within the operations function. The decisions or actions taken have a direct impact on the organisation’s business and corporate strategy. An organisation’s operations can be a source of competitive advantage if they are managed strategically in pursuit of a clear goal for operations. These are five possible operations objectives; cost, quality, speed, dependability and flexibility. It is unlikely that any operation can excel at all of these simultaneously, so competitive priorities must be determined on which to base the operations strategy. The process of operations strategy concerns the way in which an organisation develops its operations strategy. This might be top-down (i.e. formed in pursuit of its business and corporate strategy), bottom-up (i.e. formed from the actions and decisions taken with operations), market-led (i.e. formed in response to market requirements) or operations-led (based on the resources and capabilities within its operations). The content of operation strategy consists of the key decision areas concerned with the structure (i.e. the physical attributes of facilities, capacity, process technology and supply network) and infrastructure (i.e. planning and control, quality, organisation, human resources, new product development and performance measurement). Through a value chain, operations strategy would be placed in line with the company supply chain strategies and perspectives where business process are involved. This concerns the pattern of strategic decisions and actions which set the role, objectives and activities of operations. (Slack et al., 2004). References Johnson, g and Scoles, k Exploring corporate strategy, 6th Edition. England: Prentice Hall Ltd Miller, R Jentz, G (2009) Fundamentals of Business , 2nd Edition. England: Cengage Learning Soulsby, S Marsh, J (2002) Business , 8th Edition. London: Nelson Thornes Ltd Rush, J Ottley, M (2006) Business for students. London: Thomson Learning www.wikipedia.org Accessed: 15.20pm: 24.1.12